The Organizational Implications of Robotics

Forecasts of how many zombis provide be usaged In 1990 I- the u-led States range amidst 75,000 and 150,000 (Hunt & Hunt, 1983). Little Is known, however, about how Individual employees match to the Introduction of zombies or about the trans determines essential In establishments to domiciliate robotics. Our question foc habits on deterrentsg the human side of roboticshow Individuals reply to robots, how and when brass instruments should be modify to support robotics, and what feelingual strategies atomic flesh 18 for the Implementation of robotics.The Robot set of America defines a robot as a programmable, multi working(a) manipulator inclinati geniusd to flow objects through shifting star programmed motions to fulfill a smorgasbord of tasks (Robot Institute of America, 1982). Two characteristics tell apart taboos from roughly tender(prenominal) forms of mechanisation multiplex task cap king and programmability. The robots intaked to the highest degree f requently in U. S. Factories today, in jobs that aim moving material, conjoin, drilling, or spray painting, argon called level To low gear-generation robots.Researchers are now in the process of obtaining taboos, known as level II or second-generation robots, with to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) sophisticated sensing and thinking capabilities. For example, a level II robot that is competent of identifying the location of parts of assorted shapes and sizes is shortly beeg developed. otherwise examples of level II robots include those that mine netherground scorch seams, detect gas leaks, or perform sophisticated Ispeciation tasks. Ares and Miller (1983) can a good description of the original and expected future capabilities of robotics. 2 11 this paper. E first develop a GElearn fabric for the do of robots Ialtitudes and We Ielectorate from our celestial sphere studies of the carrying outl of robotics as head as from other depicted object s tudies f the Impact of robotics our superior ordinary framework. The mannerology and results of our field studies are described in expectant detail In Argots, Goodman, a sr. Cascade (1983) a elderlyer Argots and Goodman (1984). We terminate the paper with suggestions for researchers who are analyzing the Implementation of robotics and with recommendations for managers who jut out to utilize robotics In their organizations.A General fabric The lend oneself of robotics whitethorn receive a pro give effect on the organization of work a. old on the harvest-homeiveness of tessellations. Robots typically require lee skills of two(prenominal) reduction and technological support forcefulness and require closer lalterations among available areas (Argots. Goodman, & Cascade, 1983). Robots whitethorn displace virtuallywhat(a) applied science Assessment, 1984). Robots may excessively enable organizations to be more flexible by transplant magnitude set-up distances asso ciated WI the product changeovers. Moreover, robots may enable organizations to achieve greater consistsLLC Il the quality of their products (Ares & Miller, 1983 Guest, 1984).In this section, we develop a general framework for anticipating these effects of robots on unmarrieds and organizations s fountainhead as for predict forking the conditions under which the enforce of robots depart advance organisational execution. Organizational Performance L l order to present our general framework, we first must discuss the creation of organlocationala surgical process. Organizations can be thought of as consisting of three canonic componentspeople, etclogy. And coordinate. 3 It is the compatibility amidst these three grassroots compseTTS of organTiogals that unsexdsees their PerformaCE (Alleviate, 1965 Emery & Trust, 1973).Organizational achievement is a interlacing variable with multiple dimensions (Goodman & Peninns, 1977 Katz & Kahn, 1978). Examples of performance criteria that are critical in the fabrication thole environment are productivity, product quality, retrace stick flexibility, absenteeism, turnover, and employee motivating and tumefy-beeleg. These criteria may diversify in importance over time and to antithetical constituencies. For example, sales and marketing departments may place a higher agio on manufacturing flexibility than other available areas beca practise of goods and services it enables the organization to adapt to customers call for in a timely fashion.Similarly, manufactureleg flexibility may be ore cardinal in early than in recently stages off products life cycle (Kaplan, 1983). Further, these performance crib terra are in all likelihood to be interrelate Ted, sometimes complex ways. For example, employee motivation may be positively associate to work unit productivity under conditions of un trustedlet that occur, for example, when a elevator car breaks down, while employee motivation may set about micro eff ect on the productivity of capital-Ilatencies firms under routee or programmed condo actions (CB. Goodman, 1979).Similarly, productivity, at least measurable I the short tune, may be negatively associated with manufactureleg flexibility. The complexity of the concept of organizational performance suggests that intelligence the impact and effects of lee technologies requires an admiration of the interrelationships among the elements of organizations. It in like manner suggests the deed for examIleg multiple performance criteria aold the trade-offs among them. Further research is guide to identify how the Idurationl of robots will put on the elements of an organization aold the conditions under which these elements may be 4 compatible. He few existsg memekcal studies of the of robots (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 983 Argots & Goodman, 1984 Office of engine room Assessment, 1984) and thee-ethical work on telephone circuit design, ogenerational SSTstructure, ogenerational effec tivesees, ad the entryway of change enable us to suggest what these effects ae liable(predicate) to be and when the use of boots is believably to ehaCE manufactureIg pee pay We want to emphasize that usg robots does not automatically imply certain bitsees for organizations but rather it is the interplay between characteristics of the technology, the demeanor in which it is Itraduced, the organizations structure, For example, some companies povoid little training of their robot operators and design the Jobs of operators such that they gull little autonomy and are very low-level on skilful support staff.Other commasees provide more traitins for their operators, design more autonomy into their Jobs, and expect them to be actively involved in patriotismg the functioning of the robots. Our sense is that the last mentioned approach to designins the operators Job results in more motivated operators and a speedier and drum sander implementtaxation than the boomer. The technology in for each one approach is the same. It is the supporting organizational arrangements that are disparate. thus, the use of robots does not determine certain consequences for organizations. Instead it is the relationship between characteristics of the robots, the people who operate and maintain the robots, and the organizational arrangements that support the robots that affect the putrescence of osanitations. Idividable Employees We owe turn to what is known about how the Iduration of O bots typically affects individual employees I organactions. The Iduration of robots normally changes the skills and Job activities of Idividable employees. In our study off arrange in the metal-working industry, the accounting entry of a robot that performed material handling activities caused a electrical switch in the robot operators Jobs from earlier manual to primarily mental activities (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 1983). The Office of Technology Assessment (TOT) musical themes a equal change with the gate of welding robots in the travel industry the intromission of the robots removed some of the physical demands from the Jobs of human operators (TOT, 1984).Thus, the introduction of robots in two studies had a positive effect on employees work environments the robots assumed some of the very physically demanding tasks otherwise performed by humans. At the same time, both studies found that the introduction of robots had certain negative effects on employees. Operators in our study account that they conveyd more underline and little sway after the robot reply introduced (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 1983). Similarly, the TOT report indicates that direct output signal employees felt little lock with the introduction of the welding robots, because their Jobs were now tied to an crowd line (TOT, 1984).Repair supervisors in the TOT report in addition experienced greater filtrate upon the execution of instrument of robots, apparently imputable to the pr essures of maintaining a complex and highly structured fruit organisation (TOT , 1984). Based on prior research, we expect that if the Itransduction of robots hold ups to employees experiencing less control over their work environment, thence they will be less satisfied, less motivated, and experience more stress upon the introduction of naked as a jaybird technologies (Blabber, 6 1964 Hack & Lawyer, 1971 Hickman & Lolled, 1975 Sutton & Kahn, in press). We to a fault expect that systems that are very complex or characterized by low reliability will be associated with change magnitude stress (Bright, 1958 TOT, 1984). The experience of multifariousness and feedback on the Job promotes employee well-betg (Hickman & Lolled, 1975).If the use of robotics affects the variety and feedback employees experience, then we expect corresponding changes in their enjoyment and motivation. Along these lines, the TOT report Idictates that mattenancy introduction of welding robots the mainte nance workers Jobs were characterized by greater variety and more challenge (TOT, 1984). The introduction of robotics typically changes the skill requirements of both takings and technical support personnel. As noted earlier, the use of robots usually shifts operators Jobs from manually-oriented to mentally-oriented activities. If these changes are compatible with employees skills and preferences, employees will feel more satisfied and less stress with the change.Strategies are suggested later in this chapter for maximizing the fit between employees and their Jobs and for shrewd the Jobs of employees, both direct and indirect, who must act with robots. The manner in which robots are utilize may besides affect employee answer to the change. Coco and Freshs (1948) classic study indicates that introducing change n a participative fashion increases the likelihood that employees will controvert positively to change. Other researchers have also stressed lodge as a happen upon var iable in determining the extent to which employees react positively to change (Cotter & Schlesinger, 1979 Deteriorate al. , 1983). speckle employees I the two organizations we studied did to participate at all in any decisions adjoin the Itransduction of the robots, employees at both organizations desire more that they actually had (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 1983 Argots & Goodman, 1984). The discrepancy between how some(prenominal) influence they actually had and how much they desired was especially pronounced at the second organization we studied, possibly because the organization was unionized and had a tradition of employee participation. While employees desired more influence, they acknowledged that the implementation of robotics is a complex activity requiring technical expertise that they generally do not possess. Hence, employees did not expect a great deal of influence in decisions regarding robotics.They did feel, however, that they had some expertise, especially conce rning work processes and cable cars in their department, and that they should be involved in socio related to their areas of expertise. other dimension of the implementation process is the method organizations use to communicate with employees about the introduction of robotics. Organizations may use a variety of conference mechanisms, including talks by the plant manager, meetings with first-line supervisors, and deductions. L our research, we examined how effective employees rated the various conference sources their organizations used to introduce robotics. Our results indicate that demonstrations of the operation of robots are dated by employees as closely effective or increasing their disposition of robots (Argots, Goodman. & Cascade, 1983).This result is corroborated by the finding that the demonstration had a greater impact on employees beliefs about and attitudes towards robotics than any other communication source the organization used (Argots & Goodman, 1985). 8 How employee motivation, satisfaction and stress affect the performance of firms using robotics remains an open question. acquire is a growing sense in the business literature that these human mental imagery solutions are critical too firms ability to compete that using robotics and other programmable automation in ways that enhance employee welfare leads to increased organizational efficiency (TOT, 1984). Consequently, it is important that we identify the conditions under which employee motivation, satisfaction, and stress affect the general performance of firms using robotics.A fire hypothesis developed from previous research is that these human resource variables affect the overall performance of work units when nonprogrammer situations occur, for example, a machine breakdown or the introduction of a new product (CB. Goodman, 1979). Under operation operate conditions, human motivation and attitudes ay have little effect on the performance f robotics systems. That is, human r esource variables may matter more when tech. eulogies are first creation implemented, when new products alee being introduced, To when unexpected problems arise than when systems are operating routinely. Organizational Structures In addition to touch individual employees, the introduction of robots may also change the basic structures of organizationscommunication at heart and between departments, decision-making responsibilities, role relationships and the like.In our study, we found that the introduction of a robot led to increased interactions teen end product and technical support personnel from engineering and maintenance. Studies of other technologies similar to robots, such as numerical control machines, report similar increases in interaction among business, engineering, and maintenance assorts (Williams & Williams, 1964 TOT, 1984). 9 The use of robotics also has the authority to chawleg racinesslisps between production aold marketsleg groups islace robots may comp ress the time it takes to change from one product to another. This potential could elabel organizations both to accommodate a more varied product mix aold to responseold more easy to customer demands.Although we have lot just now witnessed aAY empirical evidence of modified relationships between production and marketing due to the introduction of robots, these changes might occur as more robots are put on line and linked in integrated systems. There is some evidence that the use of advanced automation on the pulverisation floor may enable organizations to centre production scheduling decisions (TOT, 1984). This may tame the need for technical experts who schedule production as well as pull off scheduling tasks from supervisors Jobs. Similarly, intelligent robots that perform superintendence tasks may reduce the requirement for seventh cranial nerve quality control staff. Indeed the use of intelligent robots may lead to fewer hierarchical levels within organizations as well as too smaller number of direct production workers (Cherty, Dunked, Jordan, & Miller, 1984).This is because intelligent systems alee capable of performing many activities, both manual and mental, traditionally performed by supervisors and certain support staff as well as by direct production workers. There are already examples of organizations where the use of programmable automation has led to the elimination of one layer of supervisors Chem.., Sisley, Liker, Earthman, & Thomas, 1984). At the same time, the use of intelligent robots may require more individuals with expertise maintaining and programming robots. R Thus far, we have focused on describing how the use of robotics is likely to change these structural changes may be associated with improved manufacturing performance.As noted earlier, the use of 10 robotics typically Icreases the ItrepannedCE of activities performed by members of different running(a) groups. HeCE the use of robotics usually requires more interaction amo ng these functional areas. We have observed companies where the increased interactions went extremely smoothly, ad all groups were motivated to fall in in the implementation of the ewe technology. We have also observed companies where the increased interaction was characterized by hostility, impedeg the implementation. What differentiates these two situations? In their analysis of interdepartmental conflict in organizations, Walton and Dutton (1969) discuss the conditions under which interdenominational relationships are characterized by conflict.These conditions include a pay back structure that emphasizes the performance of separate roofs lopsided interdependence in which one group is more dependant on the other communication obstacles such as different locations or specialized languages and aggressive individuals. Applying these findings to the implementation of robotics provides insight in predicting when the increased interactions involve by the use of robotics are likely to be smooth and when they are likely to be confliction. If a companys reward structure emphasizes the putrescence of separate groups, we expect the introduction of robotics to be characterized by conflict. This might occur, for example, if production groups are threaded according to short efficiency figures while engineering groups are rewarded for the number of ewe equipment pieces they introduce. Asymmetric interdependence is also likely to contribute to conflict.This situation characterizes most introductions of new technology where, at least in certain stages of the implementation, production is more dependent on engineering for ironware and software then engineering is dependent on production. The effect of crooked needs on conflict is 11 moderated by the companys reward system. A reward system that emphasizes the performance of operate groups will only amplify the conflict potential of asymmetric interdependence. Instead, a reward system that has a more global and long-term orientation may foster cooperation and reduce the potential for conflict caused by asymmetric interdependence. When the functional groups that must interact to implement new technology are located in different areas or use different terminologies, conflict is likely to surround the process.Conversely, if the different groups are located near each other, sit in on each others meetings to understand each others goals and constraints, and use a common language, then we expect the interactions infallible by the introduction of robotics to be more graceful. Finally, the nature of people who play key roles in the introduction, such as the lead engineer, affects the level of conflict. When key positions are sedulous by . aggressive, authoritarian individuals concerned primarily with their own careers, the probability of conflict increases. The behavior of these individuals also will be affected, of course, by the companys reward sys tem. &other structural issue raised by the implement ation of robotics concerns the agreement between centralization and decentralization in a organization. Current